Upside Down Service Pyramid

Inverted (or Upside Down) Service Pyramid 

In service management, it is common to hear talk of the upside-down or inverted service pyramid. The idea of the inverted service pyramid is that the traditional way of drawing organizational structure is inverted so that customers are at the top and the CEO and senior management are at the bottom of the organisational hierarchy. This is a very powerful way of illustrating the primary importance of service logic. This inversion symbolically represents the service ethic, or the service logic or the priorities service organisations should use and communicate to staff regarding their value system and culture. Supervisors, managers and even the CEO's primary role is to support front-line employees to deliver services to the customer. This is also a useful diagram to illustrate the principle of service leadership. 

Traditional organisational structure and inverted service pyramid

Ishikawa/Cause-Effect/Fish Bone Diagram

Ishikawa/Cause-Effect/Fish Bone Diagram

... is a fault identification process.

... is a guided brainstorming process.

The Ishikawa Chart is an excellent tool for evaluating a process. Commonly known as the Cause and Effect Diagram, Ishikawa charts are a method of charting and evaluating all the inputs for a given process. Once all the inputs have been charted, each can be evaluated as a source of variation in the overall process.

The following diagram shows the basic format of the Ishikawa chart (there are other formats but this one best suits our purposes). You can also use the STEMCF (Inputs) as the bones (from Johnston, Clark and Shulver textbook).

The process involves identifying every input to the problem using about six headings. The process involves a high degree of thinking about the process and will often generate a number of sub-lines and sub-sub-lines.

The final Cause and Effect Diagram looks like a fishbone.

Moment Mapping

Moment Mapping is a term used to describe how managers can learn to see the customer experience from the customer's point of view. Moment mapping involves recording or collecting information about each interaction a customer goes through n a typical process. This information can then be used to drive process improvement.

The following video is really helpful to understand the power of moment mapping. A Norwich Union Insurance manager describes how the company used a customer experience moment mapping technique (provided by a consultant) to experience their own service as if they were a customer. From the experience, they learned how to simplify their claims process, cut costs, increase profitability and increase customer satisfaction levels.

Service Process Mapping/Service Blueprinting/Swim-lane Diagramming

Service process mapping is also sometimes called service blueprinting or swim-lane diagramming. Services are intangible processes involving emotions and experiences across a series of touchpoints. Service managers make these intangible experiences, processes, and feelings tangible so they can be managed and shared. Ways of making these intangible things tangible include: through stories, technologies, the service concept, and through process diagrams.

One of the main ways that the service experience can be envisaged is through process mapping.

Service Process Mapping and Service Blueprinting

The presentation below provides an overview of the purposes of service process mapping or blueprinting and its conventions. Plentiful examples of maps or blueprints can be seen here at google images.

In more recent times we have seen the development of cloud process services, such as Promapp. PROMAPP is a process management software business that helps companies build, improve and share their process knowledge from a central online repository.

Basically, Promapp drives process improvement by 'simplifying' process mapping, so that business teams can own and improve their own processes. According to their website Promapp makes process mapping: Easy to use for the whole team; it generates process maps from text; it uses a simple  process map format; it enables service providers to drill down to detail and related documents; it tracks all  changes; it is browser-based (cloud); and it is easy to implement and use. They also integrate with common quality systems like Lean Six Sigma. 

You can find Promapp online here - their website is very informative and attractive. They provide services to a large range of public and private companies including SkyCity, SkyTV, Zespri, Toyota, St John, Telstra Clear, Genesis Energy, McDonald's, Burger King, Auckland Transport and other local and international companies.

Swim-lane Diagram
A similar way to represent a process is with a swim-lane process diagram. A swim-lane is a visual diagram used to illustrate a process flow, and so it is an invaluable tool in helping organisational members visualize a whole process, of which they are probably only a small part. Flowcharts can distinguish sub-processes and responsibilities. They can be arranged either horizontally or vertically.

The swim lane diagram looks like a swimming pool, hence its name. The horizontal direction represents the sequence of events in the overall process, while the vertical divisions depict what sub-process is performing that step. Arrows between the lanes represent how information or material is passed between the sub-processes.

Swim-lane diagrams are often created with software like Microsoft Visio. This is a common application used by operations and other managers to create and communicate processes.

Below is a swim-lane diagram for a simple sales process. The task responsibilities are categorized as consumer, sales, stock, and finance. 

Reference

Bitner, M.J., Ostrom, A. & Morgan, F. (2007) Service blueprinting: A practical technique for service innovation. Center for Services Leadership, Arizona State University, Working Paper.

Service winners, losers and qualifiers

One group of concepts that can be useful are the terms service winners, service losers and service qualifiers.

To be a service qualifier is to meet the minimum requirement to compete in that service class or industry. There can be regulations around qualifying. For instance, in order to practice as a chartered accountant, one needs to be a qualified chartered accountant, and this profession has various regulations and professional standards that are required before you can set up an operation in this category of businesses. Often there are many informal and formal barriers to entry to be a qualifier in a service class.

A service loser is a service provider who fails in some way to provide an adequate standard of service in their class. This often means failing on the 'hygiene and critical' (Johnston, Clark and Shulver, 2012) quality factors. These are the quality factors that, if they are not present, dissatisfy the customer. For instance, finding mice in a children's playground at a fast food restaurant (as happened recently in Auckland at a McDonald's), or two major international aircraft disasters in the same year (as unfortunately happened to Malaysian Air in 2014). At McDonald's, the failure was in cleanliness and hygiene, and for the airline it was safety. Generally speaking, a service would only fail if they consistently did not reach an adequate standard of performance in their crucial aspects. Most businesses would recover eventually, even from such tragedies as aircraft crashes, but the losses in reputation and financial sustainability can be quite profound.

A service winner is understood as the best at service in a particular class of businesses. So, for instance, McDonald's is often seen as the service winner in fast food. What McDonald's does is often copied by other fast-food restaurants (e.g. drive through, self-service kiosks, cafes, etc.). In budget hotels, Ibis is a service winner. In airlines, Air New Zealand, Singapore Air and Emirates are all arguably service winners.  

Outcome and process quality

Useful concepts in service management are technical (outcome) and functional (process) aspects of quality. Service quality has technical and functional dimensions. Grönroos (2010) differentiates between two aspects of the service offering:  the technical quality of the service and the functional quality of the process. You can understand this through the example of hairdressing.

Technical service quality  (outcome)

Functional process quality (process)

Service can be understood as a 'bundle' of processes with both functional and technical dimensions.

Understanding what Grönroos is driving at with respect to outcome and process dimensions is

easier to understand if we see it through another example. See the airplanes below: imagine both are flying an Auckland-Melbourne route. One is an Air New Zealand flight. The other is a Jetstar flight.

Both flights have the same process outcome - they both will take you to Melbourne. However, they compete with each other for your attention around their process - or their functional quality and on price. Jetstar is known as a budget airline and so their service is more stripped down. This does not mean that their process has less quality - you get what you expect and pay for. Air New Zealand also offers economy flights, but their reputation relies a lot on excellent service and so you expect a bit more. Their pricing reflects this expectation.

Reference

Grönroos C. (2010) Service management and marketing: Customer management in service competition, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

Co-production of service or 'co-creation'

'Co-production of service', or 'co-creation' are key concepts in service management.

These concepts illustrated below using building bikes as an example.

Watch the two videos below, both about the building of bikes. The first is from the British Film Council and is an historical film about 'How a bicycle is made' . The film shows a manufacturing production process for bikes in 1945.  Then watch Video 2; 'The Inverted Bike Shop'.

Note how the relationship approaches between the producer and consumer are completely different. In the first video, the factory production processes of making bikes infer mass marketing approaches to sell them. The consumer needs to be persuaded to buy the product, and individuals buying the units are anonymous.

The second video shows a relationship marketing approach (see Chapter 4 of Johnston, Clark, and Shulver, 2012). The video shows how value is created in tandem with the consumer; the consumer is co-creating value with the bike shop. In Video 2 the producer develops resources to support the customer's value creation. Value is created by the consumer with the support of the producer.

One process has not replaced the other. Bikes are still mass-produced in exactly the same way as that shown in the first 1945 film; this is just more likely to happen in  China than Britain! However, Video 2, 'The Inverted Bike Shop' does indicate the way things have progressed regarding the importance of customer service in production. Co-creation of value is now a central idea in all serve innovation.

How a Bicycle is Made (1945) from British Council Film on Vimeo.

The Inverted Bike Shop from Show Love on Vimeo.

Service apology

The key term 'Service apology' covers service business apologising, using the Erebus (Air New Zealand) disaster as an example (based on Hearit's 2006 criteria).  An ebook is available on this entry.

Apologizing in service management and marketing texts is universally advised if an error occurs in a process, and since errors are unavoidable all the time apologies are an integral part of the service recovery process. 

When a significant crisis occurs (e.g. an oil spill like BP's in the Mexico Gulf) or newspaper phone tapping (News of the World) then sometimes leaders apologise, other times not, and those apologies or non-apologies are often put under intense scrutiny and criticism.

Service organisations are 'promise systems'. Sometimes promises are not kept. So apologies can be part of the normal everyday communication fabric of the organisation; the mundane organisational apology is part of everyday service life. 

Generally speaking, apologising is almost universally seen as being the only real morally acceptable option after a wrong-doing or mistake has been made. This norm is closely tied to moral expectations in Western (Christian-originating) societies where self-sacrifice is valorised (but apologies are important to people of all cultures and religions).

Individual or inter-personal apologising may seem fairly straightforward but an apology is always a complicated business. Some excellent books have been written on the apology (e.g. Lazare, 2004; Tevuchis, 1991). Alan Lazare (2004) identifies ten functions of an effective apology. Eight of the most relevant functions are: 

1. First and foremost an apology provides the offended party with a restoration of self-respect and dignity (sometimes requiring the offending party to suffer), 
2. a need to know that values are shared,  
3. an apology is a promise about behaviour in the future,  
4. an apology provides validation to the victim and an acknowledgement of freedom from fault,     
5. acknowledgement that something really did happen,  
6. reparation, 
7. dialogue is healing, and 
8. empowerment of offending party.

There are four parts of a complex apology: 

1. acknowledging the offence,   
2. communicating remorse, forbearance and shame,  
3. offering an explanation for the offence, and 
4.  making reparations.

Lazare says social apologies of nations and other collectives of people (e.g. for historical wrongs like apartheid, genocide and land confiscations) also conform to many of the functions and structures of inter-personal apologising. Organisational apologising is a form of social apologising. The person issuing the apology may not have been obviously directly responsible for the wrongdoing as it may have occurred, for example, in the past. 

One of the best resources for understanding the organisational apology is Keith Michael Hearit’s (2006) book on crisis management and the apology. Hearit argues that an apologetic exchange can be viewed as a three-act play or ritual consisting of an act, a charge of wrongdoing, and a defence. An apology is a drama. And in drama guilt is central. If an organisation (or person) is accused of wrongdoing then that organisation or person has violated some cherished social value. In order for order to be restored, there must be a purging of the guilt of this violation and restoration into the community by the apology. 

Hearit lays out a method for ethically judging the apologetic decisions of individuals and organizations. The method involves evaluating both the method the apology is delivered and the content of the apology.  With regard to the method of delivery an ‘ideal’ ethical apology should be: 

• truthful,  
• sincere,  
• timely, 
• voluntary,     
•  must address all stakeholders, and 
• be performed in an appropriate context.

In terms of content an ‘ideal’ ethical apology should:  

• acknowledge wrongdoing,  
• accept responsibility,    
• express regret, 
•  identify with the victims,  
• ask for forgiveness,  
• seek reconciliation,  
• disclose relevant information, 
• provide an explanation that addresses the victims’ questions and concerns, and  
• offer corrective actions and compensation. 

Not every apology needs to meet each of the conditions above in order to be considered ethical, but the apology needs to be judged ‘ethically acceptable’ by its audience. At least five factors, according to Hearit’s analysis justify departures from this ideal case, whilst still retaining the essential ethical character of the apologia (the difference between the apology and the apologia, is that the apologia defends actions rather than says sorry). These departures are: 

1. catastrophic financial losses,
2. grave liability issues,
3. a moral learning curve, 
4. questions over full-disclosure, and 
5. situations where confidentiality or discretion are expected.

With these concepts about the apology, we next look at a worked example. 

The Air New Zealand Apology for the Erebus Disaster

Antartica

Erebus Disaster: What happened?

New Zealand History online provides an excellent summary of the facts of the air disaster. The best website I could find that provides all available material on the accident, including original reportage from the accident site, radio coverage, the reports and even scripts of talk between pilots before they crashed, is available here.  

A distillation of the reports leads one to conclude that the Antarctic climate is extreme, dangerous and creates optical effects that are not normal for pilots. These conditions, coupled with miscommunication over the flight path led to the plane flying into the mountain. After the accident, there was a general outpouring of blame and denial, of the accusation of cover-ups, and of resignations. Despite a general agreement as to the multi-faceted causes of the crash, and the obvious learnings that have emerged from it (including cancelling all scenic flights over Antarctica), the controversy lingers.  

In a moving ceremony CEO Rob Fyfe apologized to the families of those affected. In this crash, an Air New Zealand sightseeing flight to Antarctica TE901 crashed into Mt Erebus killing all 237 passengers and 20 crew. This apology occurred in the wake of another air disaster in France, and also involved the unveiling of a remembrance sculpture.

Read the following newspaper article of Rob Fyfe's Apology on Behalf of Air New Zealand

It is possible to critique Fyfe's apology, or examine it for its 'ethical acceptance' using Hearit's criteria outlined above.

How does Fyfe's apology measure up vis-a-vis this criteria? Notes and a conclusion are provided below (these are constructed from students in the classroom who view the apology and then give their reactions):

1. a acknowledge wrongdoing - the apology is for how families were treated after the disaster, not the disaster itself 
2. accept responsibility - responsibility is accepted for not communicating better with the families 
3. regret - responsibility is accepted for not communicating well enough 
4. identify with the victims - yes, especially with Fyfe's own recent experience dealing with the French crash  
5. ask for forgiveness - Not explicitly but implicitly  
6. seek reconciliation - symbolic acts of reconciliation - the statue? the trip to Antarctica, the public event itself
7. disclose relevant information - none disclosed 
8. provide an explanation that addresses the victims’ questions and concerns, and - partially 
9. offer corrective actions and compensation - symbolic 

An apologia is not an apology. Apologias in the organisation sense consist of a series of mitigating factors that might prevent a proper apology being given (Hearit,2006).

1. catastrophic financial losses, 
2. grave liability issues, 
3. a moral learning curve - main emphasis is here 
4. questions over full-disclosure, and 
5. situations where confidentiality or discretion are expected. 

Conclusion: Apology is an apologia for the disaster itself, and apology is for treatment to families. The focus of the apology is on the learning that occurred from the tragedy and on making sure Air NZ is seen to be acting correctly re. the French crash. 

References

Hearit, K. M. (1994). Apologies and public relations crises at Chrysler, Toshiba, and Volvo. Public Relations Review, 20, 113—125

Hearit, K. M. (2006). Crisis management by apology: Corporate response to allegations of wrongdoing. NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Laxon, A. (2011, 27 August). Erebus book 'to right a wrong'. New Zealand Herald, from http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10747717

Lazare, A. (2004). On apology. London: Oxford University Press.

Tevuchis, N. (1991). Mea culpa: A sociology of apology and reconciliation. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.

Service or purchase bundle

The service or purchase bundle is a  term used to describe the service commodity. A commodity is a thing purchased by a consumer. A commodity can include both intangible services and tangible goods. For example, you can buy a physical product like a toaster, but you also purchase intangible things like a warranty and the knowledge of the sales representative who might advise you as to the purchase (as opposed to buying one at the supermarket where you are unlikely to get any advice). The purchase of your toaster is mainly tangible product (goods) and a small amount of service.

So, remember that a ‘purchase or service bundle’ is a combination of both service and product. For any commodity, there can be different proportions of intangible service and tangible product (or goods). The image below shows different ways that the commodity 'petrol' can be bought, showing a full-service station (includes an attendant to help you at the petrol pump, a cafe and a supermarket) and a station where the purchase is simply petrol. 

In another example on the same chart, we can see that a haircut is almost completely service, but some goods are involved (e.g. shampoo). 

Emotional Labour - Student Journal Review of Tolich (1993)

Journal Review of Tolich, M. (1993). 'Alienating and liberating emotions at work: Supermarket clerks' performance of customer service'. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 22(3), 361—381. 

(Example of student work - 580 words)

Martin B. Tolich was a lecturer in the Sociology Department at Massey University and is also a graduate of the University of California. He published a qualitative study in the Journal of Contemporary Ethnography titled 'Alienating and liberating emotions at work: Supermarket clerks' performance of customer service'. The article is cited over 449 times in other journal articles according to Google Scholar, indicating the article has had a significant impact. 

The article is based on Hochschild’s seminal book, 'The managed heart', first published in 1983. In her book, Hochschild interviewed and studied flight attendants and other employees including debt collectors, and found them to be estranged from their own emotions due to performing certain acts for wages (for example, being required to smile, and be friendly); and thereby estranged from themselves. Hochschild coined the term emotional labour to explain this process of exchanging emotional acts for wages. Tolich (1993) agrees with Hochschild that emotions at work (emotional labour) are being commodified and the experience can be alienating, but he also argues that emotional acts can be liberating and non-alienating as well. 

Tolich used snowball sampling techniques and conducted unstructured interviews and direct observation of 65 supermarkets clerks in California between 1987 and 1991. He found that customer service is a complex phenomenon that cannot be explained only by alienation and estrangement. He found there are two intertwined contradictory patterns of clerks’ emotions at work. The customer service work was described by supermarket checkout operators as both stressful and satisfactory, and the work was both regulated and autonomous.  

To Tolich, emotional labour as Hochschild discusses it does not account for the contradictory emotions checkout operators felt. Tolich instead argued that the concept of emotional labour should be replaced by regulated emotion management and autonomous emotion management. He emphasized control of feelings as opposed to ownership of feeling in emotional labour (Tolich, 1993). 

Several researchers have argued that Tolich’s analysis misrepresents Hochschild. She did not argue that emotional labour has only negative consequences. Mastracci, Newman, and Guy (2006, p. 126) say Hochschild did suggest customer service work can provide "satisfaction, security, and self-esteem". Kruml and Deanna (2000) also argue that Hochschild work has been misrepresented. Hochschild did clearly speak of autonomy resulting from emotional labour. She wrote in her book that the skills workers offer are not deducted from their autonomous control as they still decide when and how to apply them and that it is up to them to decide how to handle certain problems (Hochschild, 1983, see p. 120). 

The methodology Tolich used in his study - snowball sampling - also can be critiqued. Snowball sampling is often used in qualitative research but it doesn't produce a representative sample of the population (Bryman & Bell, 2003). Tolich's results are not representative of the general population of all service workers, and possibly not even all supermarket checkout operators. In fairness, the research did not claim to be representative of the general population. Rather, the study developed theory.

One of the most notable contributions of Tolich’s work is his observation that being required to be friendly may be enjoyed by employees (see Morris & Feldman, 1996; Grandey, 2000; Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). Tolich concluded in his work that “we do not need to assume that service workers who routinely display emotions at work are alienated or estranged from their emotions and have no control over their emotion labor process” (Tolich, 1993, p. 380). This observation is important because it challenged the widely understood idea that emotional labour is imposed and felt negatively, whether or not Hochschild intended her work to be interpreted that way.  

References

Brotheridge, C., & Grandey, A. (2002). 'Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of people work'. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(1), 17-39. 

Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2003). Business research methods (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 

Grandey, A. A. (2000). 'Emotional regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor'. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 95-110. 

Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 

Kruml, S. M., & Geddes, D. (2000). 'Exploring the dimensions of emotional labor: The heart of Hochschild’s work'. Management Communication Quarterly, 14(1), 8-49. 

Mastracci, S., Newman, M. A., & Guy, M. E. (2006). 'Appraising emotion work: Determining whether emotional labor is valued in government jobs'. American Review of Public Administration, 36(2), 123-138. 

Morris, J. A., & Feldman, D. C. (1996). 'The dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of emotional labor'. Academy of Management Review, 21(4), 986-1010. 

Tolich, M. B. (1993). 'Alienating and liberating emotions at work: Supermarket clerks' performance of customer service'. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 22(3), 361-381. 

Service-scape (Niketown Chicago retail)

The servicescape concept refers to the way that the 'place of business' is created to support the service concept.  Services send messages through its environment to communicate to consumers how to use its service, and the meanings the service has.

Booms and Bitner (1981) are credited with the original research that coined the term servicescape. The service-scape concept includes the ways that place-based factors moderate both customer and employee behaviour. The framework illustrates that ambient conditions, space factors and signs and symbols in an environment will create in users (both employees and customers) an experience facilitated through the environment. This environmental experience should support the service concept. There will be individual factors that moderate this experience, and this experience will then lead to certain responses in both employees and customers. A range of responses will eventuate around three main categories of response: cognitive (what people think), emotional (what they feel), and physiological (what their bodies experience). This, in turn, will lead to behaviours of approach and/or avoidance from both customers and employees and will lead also to social interactions between customers and employees.

By BronHiggs - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=54853114

Bitner wrote in 2012: "Clearly the design and presentation of the servicescape can serve to attract customers into the service facility. Signage, colors, attractive design, music, or scents can be used to draw customers into a place. Once inside, the servicescape will help to shape the customer's experience and influence his or her satisfaction with the service delivery. In some cases, the servicescape may even be a determining factor in whether the customer returns or gives more of his or her business to the firm".

The focus of designing servicescape is on the five senses: sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing.

Other people have developed the service-scape concept since Bitner's original 1992 article. One more recent use of the idea has been by Rosenbaum and Massiah (2011) who argue that the:

"servicescape comprises not only objective, measureable, and managerially controllable stimuli but also subjective, immeasurable, and often managerially uncontrollable social, symbolic, and natural stimuli, which all influence customer approach/avoidance decisions and social interaction behaviors. Furthermore, customer responses to social, symbolic, and natural stimuli are often the drivers of profound person-place attachments". (p. 471)

In brief, this means that servicescapes provide the material by which customers (and employees) co-create value in the servicescape. This is not a new idea as it was the focus of Sherry's important edited collection of research about servicescapes, published in 1998. Sherry wrote about Niketown Chicago in a chapter in this book.

Rosenbaum and Massiah do introduce further embellishments to the idea, and reading their article suggest the following further observations (amongst others):

• not everything about the place is manageable;
• people have profound place attachments and these are not necessarily shared through the same cultural codes   (e.g. in a tourist experience);
• creating service-scapes with 'restorative' potential (e.g. in hospitals) is one implication of their study. 

Rosenbaum and Massiah's framework is given below:

This image is from Rosenbaum and Massiah (2011). The article and diagram can be found here. 

Niketown

A place like Niketown Chicago is not actually designed specifically to sell a product, but to showcase what Nike means. Nike let its designers loose to create a place for the worship of athletes, especially the basketball icon Michael Jordan (Sherry Jnr, J., 1998).

Nike's mission is to bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete* in the world. The asterix (*) in the missions statement isn't a grammar mistake, but refers to an additional statement as part of Nike's mission - if you have a body, you are an athlete. In a further refinement of their mission statement, they also say, their 'Consumer Affairs Mission' is to represent the highest service standard within and beyond our industry, building loyal consumer relationships around the world http://nikeinc.com/pages/consumer-affairs.

Nike's environments are designed so that the sights, sounds, tastes, smells and touch sense evoke the Nike brand. For instance, 

"Nike once did a test on consumer responses to identical pairs of gym shoes. One test was conducted in a room that was completely odour-free. The other was artificially imbued with a floral scent.  The floral scent increased the desirability of the shoes by 84 per cent of respondents." http://strategiccreative.com.au/2012/04/25/designing-servicescapes/

The following video from Youtube is of various customers and employees saying things about the service-scape at Niketown London.  Watch this and also read the short vignette on pages 248-249 of Gronroos 'A service-scape example: Nike Town Chicago', then you will get an initial feel for how Nike has designed their facility to evoke a sense of place that supports their service concept.

References

Bitner, M.J. (1992). Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees, Journal of Marketing, 56 (2): 57-71.

Bitner, M. (2012). The servicescape. Handbook of services marketing and management. In Swartz, T. & Iacobucci, D. (eds.) Handbook of service marketing and management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Booms, B.H. & Bitner, MJ (1981). Marketing strategies and organisation structures for service firms. In J Donnelly, J & W.R. George (eds.). Marketing of services. Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association.

Penaloza, L. (1999). Just doing it: A visual ethnographic study of spectacular consumption behavior at Nike Town. Consumption, Markets, and Culture, 2: 337 — 465.

Pine, J. & Gilmore, J., H. (1998). Welcome to the experience economy. Harvard Business Review.

Rosenbaum, M. & Massiah, C. (2011). An expanded servicescape perspective. Journal of Service Management, 22: 471—490.

Sherry, J. F. Jnr. 1998. Nike Town Chicago and the emplaced brandscape. In J.F.J. Sherry (Ed.) Servicescapes: The concept of place in contemporary markets. Chicago: NTC Business Books.

Sherry, J. F., Kozinets, R. V., Storm, D., Duhachek, A., Nuttavuthisit, K. & Deberry-Spence, B. (2001). Being in the zone: Staging retail theater at ESPN zone Chicago. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 30: 465-510.